AI Ethics and a Century-Long Repeat Sign scrap
by
Bae Myung-hoon
Translated by
Sean Lin Halbert
September 4, 2026
At some point in time, Korea entered the “Age of AI.” Exactly what that means is hard to say. Two years ago in 2024, the great science fiction author Ted Chiang visited Korea and gave us his opinion about artificial intelligence. His message, which was quoted by various outlets, was this: What everyone is calling “AI” isn’t really AI; it’s ridiculous to say you’re going to use it to create art. On the page, his tone came across as calm and matter-of-fact, but in reality, he was probably screaming at the top of his lungs.
The noise of that incident is now in the past, and Korean society has officially entered the Age of AI. In an era named as such, it’s only natural that science fiction writers receive questions about AI wherever we go. They’re usually questions asking us, as professionals who straddle the line between science and the humanities, to predict how the two will ever find harmony. Of course, I have my own thoughts and opinions on the matter, and so do the professionals from various fields with whom I’ve shared the stage. But these forums invariably end with the same call to action: “Now it’s time for us to think about the ethics of AI.” It’s a bit cliché and mechanical, but it’s always made with the most serious of expressions. What can artificial intelligence do? What are its limits? Conversely, what are humans uniquely capable of? How will society delegate work and make sure the two domains don’t overlap? And how can humans and machines possibly coexist? I always come away from these deep questions and serious debates with the same impression: “Wow, what a constructive discussion, reinventing the wheel for the progress of modern civilization!”
I included Karel Čapek’s play R.U.R. on the reading list for my literature course this semester, a play which was staged across the US and Europe in the twenties to great popular acclaim. Not the 2020s, but the 1920s. I know, some of you are rolling your eyes right now—“Karel Čapek? But he lived so long ago!” However, the reason I’m bringing this old work into the conversation is precisely because it’s one of the many reinvented wheels of AI ethics.
The title R.U.R. comes from the name of the robot manufacturing company at the center of the play: Rossum’s Universal Robots. In fact, the word “robot” itself was introduced in this play and referred to the company’s product. This isn’t to say that R.U.R. was the first and only text to talk about robot-like beings and artificial intelligence, but I believe it’s a natural place to begin the discussion.
To skip straight to the point, if R.U.R. was the first wheel of AI ethics, it rolled fantastically well upon its invention. So well, in fact, that I find myself wondering how it was possible that someone like Čapek, living when neither robots nor AI nor anything remotely similar existed, could formulate questions so like the ones we see on television news today. (This is me encouraging anyone who hasn’t read the book to find it and read it for themselves.)
The questions the work raises are as follows: What distinguishes us humans from robots? Is it acceptable for humans to treat robots as objects and to discriminate against them? Isn’t the very pain and toil we try to escape through robots, in fact, the core of what it means to be human? Indeed, where do we find meaning once we are deprived of our ability to produce? Should robots be used in war?
If the ethical questions we raise in 2026 are barely distinguishable from those raised in 1920, it’s not only because R.U.R. is a great classic, but also in part because the questions we are raising in 2026 are so painfully superficial. At the threshold of the so-called “Age of AI” stands a repeat sign, one that transports every discussion about AI ethics back one hundred years. The ethical thought experiments pioneered by early science fiction writers and carried out over the last century, and the loose but far-reaching social contracts that emerged from them—it is these that the repeat sign conspires to make us pretend we’ve forgotten.

In which direction did the twentieth-century wheel of AI ethics roll? The number of authors who have written about robots and artificial intelligence is too great to count, and this makes it hard to reduce the trajectory of the discussion to a single line. We have no choice but to use the names of giants as signposts. Standing firmly at the junction of the 1940s is none other than Isaac Asimov.
Behind Asimov’s famous “Three Laws of Robotics” is the memory of the rebellion staged by the robots in R.U.R. who took over the world. The robots of the play were originally designed to strip human workers of their livelihoods—the U in R.U.R. stands for universal, after all. So the robots were inherently terrifying beings. Because of this, Asimov encoded the following laws into the brains of his robots.
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.[1]
[1] Isaac Asimov, “Runaround,” in I, Robot (Doubleday, 1950), 40.
Asimov’s novels serve as case studies of the errors and loopholes that can arise despite these three laws. Nonetheless, the laws make clear one thing regarding the coexistence of humans and robots: humans are the masters, robots are the tools.
Countless other writers and branching paths lie along the way, but Asimov’s wheel keeps rolling. In the 1960s, Philip K. Dick published Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep, in which a human detective hunts down androids despite constantly grappling with the possibility that androids might be more human than actual humans. The questions raised in this novel were adapted into the 1982 film Blade Runner, allowing them to reach an even wider audience.
Through this continued discourse, it became clear that, because of the terrifying possibilities that AI and robots posed for humanity, the industries producing them needed appropriate bargaining chips to win public acceptance. From this, an implicit agreement took shape. The use of artificial intelligence and robots as weapons of war would be heavily restricted, and they would instead be deployed first and foremost in the dangerous, difficult, and dirty work that humans don’t want to do—so-called 3D work.
This agreement became a kind of social contract and functioned as a loose norm well into the early twenty-first century. Even in the 2010s, when AI technology made its dramatic leap forward, people thought of putting AI to use primarily in areas such as healthcare and caregiving. It’s probably in this same context that, during that period, the number of entries to science fiction writing contests featuring care robots exploded. The narratives themselves weren’t especially novel, but they had internalized the ethical lessons. For the most part, they were heart-warming attempts that somewhat renewed one’s faith in humanity.
But this norm was quickly forgotten as AI technology became more visible. Now, engineers tend to develop not the technology in fields that need to be developed, like the 3D industries or caregiving, but the technologies that can be developed, like the production of art, literature, and music. It is here that the repeat sign of AI ethics appeared. The sign is also a proposal that we erase the thought experiments and social contracts of the twentieth century, and start thinking about AI ethics from scratch.
The results of this attitude are already unsettling. Even the most progressive TV news channels report on the real-world deployment of AI-equipped weaponry with indifference. This would have been almost unthinkable back when the imagery of the Terminator series was fresh in the mind of the public. Even in 2016, when there was much ado about Lee Sedol’s face-off against AlphaGo, it seemed that the ethical lessons of the twentieth century were still alive and well. Newspapers and magazines were calling science fiction writers daily, and most of the questions I received stemmed from the same fear at the heart of R.U.R.: Was AI going to take over the world? At least up to that point, Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics seemed to be still in effect in human society.
But the wheel didn’t just stop rolling with Asimov. Donna Haraway invented her own wheel, which rolled in the opposite direction from Asimov’s. Is it really the case that only humans can be subjects, while robots remain mere objects? Haraway’s A Cyborg Manifesto, which subverts the relationship between human and machine, claims that humans are already cyborgs. I’m doubtful of the validity of her thesis as it applied to the world in 1985, before the internet and smartphones. I’m pretty sure I wasn’t a cyborg back then. But now, I probably am a cyborg; I couldn’t do even half the work I do right now without the internet.
Haraway is not a writer of science fiction, obviously, but her wheel brushed right up against the concerns of contemporary science fiction by following the intellectual current of posthumanism. About ten years ago, a somewhat curious phenomenon arose in the Korean literary scene. Literary critics and humanities scholars started furiously consuming Korean science fiction, which until then had been largely dismissed in academic circles. As a writer of science fiction who was at the time already twenty years into my career, I couldn’t help but find this a bit odd. I still read with skepticism any literary criticism that approaches science fiction from a posthumanist perspective. Too much of it feels disconnected from the actual concerns of the authors.
My impression is that posthumanism wasn’t brought in to make sense of the explosion of Korean science fiction over the past decade, but rather that science fiction has been commandeered and appropriated for the purpose of writing about posthumanism. Then again, I can’t dismiss the overlap between the two. The continued literary achievements of science fiction writer Kim Cho-yeop, the literary embodiment of posthumanism, cannot be overstated.
As its name suggests, posthumanism is a theory of reflection and a reckoning against humanism which dominated all of modernity. It overturns the assumptions that humans are subjects while things remain mere tools. And in literature, it was used to rewrite the grammar that fixed subject and object in their respective hierarchies. By its logic, the Three Laws of Robotics would need to be rewritten completely; robots and AI would have the right to defend themselves, without regard for human safety or human intent.
My point is: even before the recent wave of celebrated AI services, humanity was equipped to ask whether AI and humans can coexist. Do we really even need to start the ethical inquiry into this problem from scratch? Frankly, I don’t think so. This is a line of inquiry already in the stage of finding answers. We don’t need to go back to square one to reopen the discussion.
And neither are the answers to all these ethical questions locked away in some ivory tower of literature and theory. You need only look at the countless children’s robot cartoons airing on educational television to start getting clues. Some robots still act as protectors of Earth, but plenty of others have transformed and combined with humans to rescue humans, to coexist with humans, to position themselves between the poles of humans and machines. And they do this all without ever once mentioning the word posthumanism. Even without such a concept, people are already thinking and feeling along posthuman lines.
Art is basically useless. More precisely, it’s an activity that can’t be properly evaluated with a ruler that measures usefulness. And because I’m so used to being called useless and watching my fellow artists being called useless, I find myself reluctant to ever call anything useless. But if there is one thing in this world that might have no use, it might be trying to improve the performance of self-driving cars by reinventing the wheel. Of course, there might be cases in which something useless in engineering might prove extremely useful in ethics, but this doesn’t seem to be one of them.
Should a news anchor be allowed to proudly announce that cutting-edge weapons equipped with AI were deployed in combat? Even if the report is delivered calmly and objectively, are we supposed to sit around and accept the news without doing anything? Can AI be conscious? Can it have a soul? If we discover something within artificial intelligence, could we declare it real? How true is the claim that AI, through “training,” has become capable of creating art, and how much of it is just playing loose with definitions of words? And finally, is it really true that we still haven’t developed the ethical framework by which to judge any of this?
Before we set about inventing anything new in the face of these kinds of questions, let us first look back at Karel Čapek. He gave us the wheel for this problem, and our civilization is already rolling along with it just fine.
Writer 필자 소개
Translator 번역가 소개
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