Lee Injik (1862-1916) was a Korean novelist. Considered the ancestor of modern Korean novels, Lee started out in the media as an assistant at a newspaper company while studying abroad in Japan. Upon his return to Joseon, he became an active writer of sinsoseol, a journalist, and a politician. His representative works are Hyeorui nu (血의 淚 Tears of Blood) (1906), Gwiui seong (鬼의 聲 Songs of Spirits) (1906-1907), and Eunsegye (銀世界 Silvery World). Lee’s criticism of the underdeveloped status of Joseon and his argument for enlightenment led to a support for Japanese rule over the kingdom. Through the media, Lee advocated for Imperial Japan’s rule over Joseon, and played a critical role in Japan’s forcible annexation of Joseon.
1. Life
Studying in Japan
Lee Injik was born in Icheon, Gyeonggi Province, in 1862. In 1990, at the relatively late age of 38, he received a royal scholarship to study in Japan. He attended Nihonseisaku School, whose principal was Japanese media mogul Matsumoto Kunpei (松本君平). Even in his role as principal, Matsumoto always emphasized the influence of the media and the importance of enlightenment.[1] His collected lectures Shinbungaku offer insight into the kind of literary education Lee received during his time in Japan.
Before entering the media
Rather than become a professional novelist following his studies, Lee served as an assistant at a local newspaper company starting in 1901. Afterwards, he founded a newspaper and served more as a journalist than a writer of fiction. As an international student, he wrote the article “Hanguksinmunchangseolcwijiseo” (韓國新聞創設取旨書 Article for the Intention to Establish Newspapers in Korea) (1903) in a for the implementation of newspapers in Joseon, which he claimed would spur on enlightenment. Lee also published informative articles about Korea such as “Hangukjapgwan” (韓國雜觀 Miscellaneous Things to See in Korea) (1902), “Hanguksileopnon” (韓國實業論 Theory of Industry in Korea) (1902), and “Hangukgongmulnon” (한국곡물론 Theory of Grains in Korea) (1904), as well as literary works such as “Mongjungbangeo” (夢中放語 Words Spat Out in Dreams) (1901) and “Gwabuui kkum” (과부의 꿈 The Widow’s Dream) (1902). Lee’s writings from this time serve as a preview of his future newspaper career.
Return to Joseon
In 1904, Lee was named an interpreter for the Japanese Army and served in the Russo-Japanese War. Afterwards, he kicked off his media career in Joseon. In 1906, he worked as the editor-in-chief of the Gungmin Sinbo and is said to have serialized his first novel Baengnojugangsangchon (白鷺洲江上村), but the assertion could not be confirmed because no copies of the newspaper currently exist. The same year, he left the Gungmin Sinbo and became the editor-in-chief of the Cheondoist newsletter Mansebo, where he serialized the debate “Sahwe” (社會 Society) and the novels Hyeorui nu and Gwiui seong, which were received with public acclaim. Hyeorui nu in particular was published in book format in 1907 by Gwanghakseopo[3] and reprinted due to its popularity.
When Mansebo ran into financial difficulties, the influential pro-Japanese politician Ye Wanyong offered assistance. Lee renamed the newspaper to Daehan Sinmun and became its president. It was at this point in time that his pro-Japanese actions intensified. In 1908, Eunsegye was published in book format and even adapted into a Changgeuk. The publisher of Eunsegye was Dongmunsa, with which prominent pro-Japanese politicians from Ye’s faction were involved. Until the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, which resulted in Japan’s annexation of Korea, Lee was an outspoken supporter of Japanese rule over Korea and consorted frequently with important figures in the Japanese Resident-General of Korea including Ye Wanyong, Cho Jung-eung, and Komatsu Midori (小松緣).[4]
Following the annexation, Lee was named to the position of Saseong at Gyeonghagwon, a Confucian school under the Governor-General of Korea. Lee was treated particularly well, even among others of his rank at the Governor-General.[5] In his new position, Lee took on the responsibility of editing and publishing the magazine Gyeonghagwonjapji, which promoted and advocated for the Governor-General’s policies. Lee died of a chronic disease in 1916. He was listed in the Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Names for publishing multiple articles justifying Japanese rule over Joseon in his career in the media.[6]
2. Writing
Journalism and Novels
Rather than a novelist, Lee Injik is classified more as a journalistic figure who used his novels as an extension of his newspaper career. His representative works show the common thread of overcoming the backwardness and underdeveloped status of Joseon by the application of modern knowledge and civilization. Oknyeon, the protagonist of Hyeorui nu, is separated from her parents at a young age in the Sino-Japanese War. She goes to Japan, then to the United States, and becomes determined to bring enlightenment to Joseon’s women. Eunsegye is a condemnation of the corrupt and ineffectual rulers who controlled Joseon, and an assertion that international students who have acquired outside knowledge must bring progress to Joseon society. Gwiui seong also denounces Joseon society, examining the practice of noble yangban taking concubines. In these works, Lee argued that Joseon society must change, and claimed that the acceptance of modern civilization is the answer.
The theater adaptation and performance of Eunsegye was also a call for social enlightenment in Joseon. Lee led the movement for the modernization of theater, arguing that Joseon must embrace the new theater movement in Japan and adapt it for the local culture so that theater could become an effective means of public enlightenment,[7] He was a proponent of Social Darwinism, which was a prevailing belief in the world at the time and claimed that the concept of survival of the fittest was justified because the pressure of population growth led to the advancement of civilization.[8] For Lee, this belief justified the rule of more developed nations over others. His conviction that national enlightenment was necessary likely solidified when he watched Japan defeat Russia, one of the greatest powers in the West. However, when the possibility of establishing a nation-state was struck down, the desire for enlightenment and progress led to his justification of colonial rule.
Literary significance
Although his works were written primarily for the purpose of journalism, Lee’s contribution to Korean literature cannot be denied. Prominent Korean literary writers from the Japanese occupation era—including Kim Dong-in—named Lee Injik as the father of modern Korean literature because of his use of the modern novel format, which though incomplete, broke away from classical Korean literature. Novelist Yim Hwa spoke highly of Hyeorui nu and Eunsegye for their use of contemporary realities as the setting and theme—the use of specific historical settings and realities was another change from classical Korean novels.[9] Kim Dong-in praised Gwiui seong for avoiding black-and-white morality and the traditional good-triumphs-over-evil narrative via the use of multidimensional characters.[10] From this perspective, Lee Injik is remembered as the novelist who bridged the era of classical Korean literature and the era of modern Korean literature.
Reference
[1] Matsumoto Kunpei (松本君平) was a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania who worked as a reporter at the New York Tribune. He returned to Japan and opened Nihonseisaku School in 1898. Refer to “松本君平,” Wikipedia, https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%BE%E6%9C%AC%E5%90%9B%E5%B9%B3.
[2] Although never translated and published in Korean, the part of the collection was translated in Tajiri Hiroyuki (田尻浩幸)’s research paper.
Tajiri, Hiroyuki, “Lee Injik yeongu,” (Research on Lee Injik), Kookhak, 2006, p.265-274.
[3] The publisher Gwanghakseopo played an important part in modern Korean literature, Founded by pioneers in the field like Yun Chi-ho and Yi Sangsul in 1906, it published sinsoseol by Lee Injik and translated biographies by Sin Chaeho and Chang Chi-yon. Following Korea’s annexation, the publisher was subjected to confiscation and censorship, forcing it to scale down its activities to the translation of Classical Chinese texts.
“Gwanghakseopo,” Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0005328.
[4] Komatsu Midori (小松緣) was a high-level official at the Japanese Resident-General of Korea who played a critical role in the signing of the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910.
[5] Originally known as Sungkyunkwan, Gyeonghagwon was the re-named Confucian school established in 1911 by the Governor-General of Korea. Other people of the Saseong rank received a pay of 600 won at the time, where Lee Injik was paid 900 won. The only personnel paid more than Lee were Ye Wanyong (2000 won), Cho Jung-eung and other advisers (1600 won) and 18 people of the Chamui rank (1000 won).
Tajiri, Hiroyuki, “Lee Injik yeongu,” (Research on Lee Injik), Kookhak, 2006, p.38.
[6] A list of Japanese sympathizers compiled by the Center for Historical Truth and Justice. Refer to “민족문제연구소의 친일인명사전 수록자 명단,” Wikipedia, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EB%AC%B8%EC%A0%9C%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%EC%86%8C%EC%9D%98_%EC%B9%9C%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%B8%EB%AA%85%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84_%EC%88%98%EB%A1%9D%EC%9E%90_%EB%AA%85%EB%8B%A8.
[7] Silvery World is considered to have been written with theatrical adaptation in mind. For more information on the Wongaksa Theater and Lee Injik’s push for the modernization of theater, refer to “신연극 ‘은세계’와 한국 연극,” Yonhap News, November 2017, https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20171108061600371.
[8] Social Darwinism was a mainstream line of thought in eighteenth-century Europe. The concept garnered attention in Joseon in the 1880s. Refer to “사회 진화론,” Wikipedia, https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C_%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94%EB%A1%A0.
[9] Im, Hwa, “Summary of New Literature History,” 1939. Park, I-jeong, Im Hwa Literature Collection vol.2: Literary History,” 2001.
[10] Kim, Dong-in, “Examining Modern Joseon Novels,” Toji, 2019. (e-book)
